N. Scott Momaday: Literary Chieftain of a Native American Renaissance

Kyungwon Lee

Saugus High School AP US History and AP English Language and Composition Team Term Paper

Thesis: The cultural diversity of his childhood, destabilizing effects of American legislation on native cultures, environmental destruction of native lands, and political precedents of the 1960s fostered the development of N. Scott Momaday’s convictions in the environmental responsibility of mankind, power of language, and need for identity, all of which are presented in his Pulitzer Prize-winning novel, House Made of Dawn. While initially dismissed by some critics, the novel’s literary merit and impact upon the twentieth century cannot be ignored, for it shattered traditional Native American stereotypes, triggered a renewed interest in Native American cultures, advocated the fusion of Native and European American policies, and sparked what Kenneth Lincoln termed the “Native American Renaissance” (“N(avarre) Scott Momaday” par. 1).

I. Introduction

II. Biography and personal and social influences of Momaday

A. Heritage and childhood: Kiowa/Cherokee/European descent, multicultural experience, faced alienation and experienced cultural ambiguity

B. Indian legislation: Dawes Act, Relocation Act, loss of native lands, mandatory assimilation threatened the survival of native cultures

C. Environmental destruction: deterioration of ecosystems offended traditional beliefs of many Native Americans, extinction of the buffalo, pressures of consumerism

D. Political precedents: precedent from African American movement, American Indian Movement, pan-Indian political effort

III. Main arguments and rhetorical strategies

A. In his 1968 debut, House Made of Dawn, N. Scott Momaday laments the loss of environmental responsibility and showcases the power of language and the human need for identity.

B. Importance of the Preservation of Nature

1. Imagery portrays nature’s beauty (ex: eagles)

2. Tank symbolizes the destruction of the earth

C. Power of Language

1. Tosamah’s persona is used to relay Momaday’s views on language

2. Sacred language used to establish credibility and appeal to authority

3. Abel’s inarticulateness hampers his relationship with his native culture

D. Need for Cultural Identity

1. Abel’s actions symbolize his alienation (ex: killing of the albino)

2. Abel vs. Francisco: juxtaposition illustrates Abel’s detachment

3. Application of oral tradition techniques

IV. Legacies of Momaday’s literature

A. Social redefinition: shattered Indian stereotypes, pushed for education for Native Americans, pioneered the field of Native American studies

B. Cultural revival: became unofficial figurehead for the Native American community (“voice”), public exposure brought recognition to Native Americans, founded the Buffalo Trust

C. Political impressions: encouraged Red Power movement, advocated the incorporation of the Native American land ethic into American policies

D. Literary impacts: sparked the Native American Renaissance, increased non-native interest in Native American literature, influenced Native American writers (Leslie Marmon Silko, Gerald Vizenor)

V. Conclusion

VI. Works Cited

VII. Annotated Bibliography

N. Scott Momaday: Literary Chieftain of a Native American Renaissance

When asked about his childhood aspirations, N. Scott Momaday replied: “Oh, a cowboy” (“Shouting at the Machine” 126). An obvious jest from the Native American writer, the answer reflects Momaday’s confidence in his identity as an American Indian and lack of bitterness toward age-old race conflicts. Furthermore, the cultural diversity of his childhood, destabilizing effects of American legislation on native cultures, environmental destruction of native lands, and political precedents of the 1960s fostered the development of N. Scott Momaday’s convictions in the environmental responsibility of mankind, power of language, and need for identity, all of which are presented in his Pulitzer Prize-winning novel, House Made of Dawn. While initially dismissed by some critics, the novel’s literary merit and impact upon the twentieth century cannot be ignored, for it shattered traditional Native American stereotypes, triggered a renewed interest in Native American cultures, advocated the fusion of Native and European American policies, and sparked what Kenneth Lincoln termed the “Native American Renaissance” (“N(avarre) Scott Momaday” par. 1).

“I don’t know what an Indian is. The ‘American Indian’—that term is meaningless”

N. Scott Momaday (Trimble 5).

From birth, Momaday’s rich medley of Kiowa, Cherokee, and European blood, parental guidance, and early encounters with alienation provided the basis for a unique cross-cultural perspective (“N(avarre) Scott Momaday” par. 4). His Kiowa father, Al Momaday, represented the dwindling number of traditional—or “longhair”—Indians in America (House Made of Dawn 3). On the opposite end of the native spectrum, Momaday’s part-Cherokee mother, Natachee Scott, embodied the spirit of an emerging generation of part-Native Americans which embraced the native culture with enthusiasm and pride (Schubnell 14). As a young woman, Natachee chose to actively rediscover her Indian heritage, a decision that would later inspire Momaday’s existential view of identity as a mental state (Allen 208; Velie 15). Although from different cultural environments, both parents impressed the value of education upon the young Momaday (Schubnell 20). During a time when education was mainly labeled the “white man’s way,” Natachee stressed that education need not threaten his native identity (qtd. in Trimble 5; Schubnell 20). In pursuit of a comprehensive education for their son, the Momadays moved to various Indian reservations as well as the U.S. Army Hobbs Air Force Base (Schubnell 16-18). Although Momaday was “enough non-Indian to get along in either world,” the ubiquitous specter of alienation continued to imperil Momaday’s sense of self (qtd. in Schubnell 17). An early example being the Kiowas’ rejection of Momaday’s Cherokee mother, Momaday was ostracized not only by white society but also by his fellow Indians at the Navajo and Jemez Pueblo reservations (16). In spite of these personal difficulties, Momaday’s multicultural experiences would become an invaluable source of credibility for his arguments.

Due to his indigenous ancestry, legislation passed by the United States government targeting Native Americans greatly shaped the world that Momaday would inhabit in the mid-twentieth century. The General Allotment Act of 1887, more commonly known as the Dawes Act, dismantled the very foundation of many tribal cultures, including that of the Kiowas. The dissemination of communally held lands and the corruption of traditional gender roles undermined tribal unity (Schubnell 27; “Native American Cultures: Subsistence Patterns” par. 13). Mammedaty, Momaday’s grandfather, was among the many demoralized former warriors and hunters that were forced to adopt farming, a task customarily reserved for women (Schubnell 27; “Native American Cultures: Subsistence Patterns” par. 14). Government programs implemented in the 1950s allowed Indians to relocate to prominent cities like Los Angeles and Chicago; by 1960, 35,000 Indians were living in major cities (Porter 57). While witnessing this massive migration, Momaday illustrated the effect of the cities, or “wasteland[s] of modern culture,” on the Native Americans’ spirituality through the character of Abel in House Made of Dawn (Ruppert 187). Ironically, while these policies were designed to quell unity within the Native American community, in reality, they would serve as a unifying factor for the political movements that would commence in the 1960s and 1970s (Porter 57).

For millennia, the Native Americans regarded the land as “a spiritual entity, the place of origin, source of subsistence, [and] home of gods” (Schubnell 66). Because of this reverence for the land, government policies aimed at exploiting or annihilating nature were perceived as a direct assault on one of the fundamental principles of many Native American tribes. Momaday condemned the government’s endorsement of excessive hunting of the buffalo as “perhaps the most immoral act ever committed against the land” (qtd. in Trimble 7). For the western tribes, the versatile buffalo quickly gained ritual and sacred importance, ultimately becoming the natives’ “living shield” (“Native Americans of the Plains and Far West” par. 5; qtd. in Roemer par. 2). The collapse of buffalo populations due to systematic hunting made subsistence economies unviable, forcing Native Americans to become dependent on the government for sustenance and basic supplies (Porter 52). In the twentieth century, the land faced new threats from nuclear testing, nuclear waste disposal, coal strip mining, and oil, logging, and uranium extraction (40). The transgressions of the past coupled with contemporary pressures urged Momaday to promote a collaborative exchange and synthesis of beliefs between native and white cultures for mutual benefit (Costo 4).

An era of hope for Native Americans in the 1960s encouraged Momaday to take part in the growing social and political movement for Indian rights and self-determination. By the mid-1920s, the concept of cultural diversity had largely usurped the ideal of the “American melting pot” (Porter 55). Activist groups such as the National Indian Youth Council and the American Indian Movement (AIM), motivated by the successes of the African American movement, advocated political sovereignty for Native Americans and promoted cultural traditions as a source of pride (Teuton 3; “Native American Movement” par. 4). The founders of the AIM particularly emphasized the problems facing a growing number of urban Indians, which included difficulty finding work, dilapidated housing, low income, and police harassment and brutality (“Native American Movement” par. 6). Momaday would later depict these obstacles in House Made of Dawn through the protagonist’s experiences in Los Angeles.

“[I]n a certain sense we are all made of words; […] our most essential being consists in language”

N. Scott Momaday (Schubnell 41).

In his 1968 debut, House Made of Dawn, Momaday laments the loss of environmental responsibility and showcases the power of language and the human need for identity. Abel, the protagonist, is a young Native American caught between a rapidly changing white society and a steadfastly anachronistic tribal culture. House Made of Dawn chronicles Abel’s spiritual return to the land of his ancestors in a classic oral setting, but through an unorthodox medium: a novel. This blending of indigenous and Euro-American mediums suggests that while Momaday’s works are mainly credited with representing prominent Native American principles, his views have greater universal appeal than one may expect. The protection of the land applies to all humans and remains a pressing problem for the twenty-first century as well. A respect for the art of language has its roots in the oral tradition, but is similarly found in the scripture of John in the Christian Bible (Bonetti 136-7). The necessity of identity for individuals has also been expressed by a number of non-Indians, including William Faulkner (Schubnell 68). These parallels between belief systems point to Momaday’s ultimate goal of a union of cultures in American society.

Momaday’s stunning imagery and use of symbolism vividly conveys the beauty of the land and man’s failure to adequately preserve that beauty. In the prologue, Momaday deliberately orders the introduction of certain elements. The “old and everlasting” land is introduced first, followed by the spotted horses, and then the human, Abel (House Made of Dawn 1). By presenting the earth first, Momaday emphasizes the vast scale and magnificence of the land compared to the miniscule figure of Abel. From this perspective, man is demoted from the master to the servant of nature. Momaday exhibits nature’s beauty through the dazzling mating flight of the golden eagles. The eagles’ flight, described as “an awful, holy sight, full of meaning and magic,” absolutely mesmerizes Abel as he watches the spectacle:

They were cavorting, spinning and spiraling on the cold, clear columns of air, and they were beautiful. They swooped and hovered, leaning on the air, and swung close together, feinting and screaming with delight. (14, 16).

Momaday surpasses conventional methods of descriptive writing and employs the rhythms and cadences of the words themselves to mimic the sinuous movements of the eagles through the air (Lincoln 118). The use of fragmented syntax linguistically illustrates the currents and undulations of the eagles. Momaday contrasts this glorious display with the image of the “intrusion of the machine into the garden” to signify man’s sacrilege against the land (American Nature Writers par. 33). Later, while fighting in World War II, Abel witnesses the tank “rising up behind the hill, black and massive, looming there in front of the sun […] For a moment it seemed apart from the land” (House Made of Dawn 22). The obstruction of the sun and the darkness of the tank symbolize the imminent destruction of human kind. The disconnect between the machine and the land further warns of man’s departure from his roots in the earth. Through Abel’s interactions with nature, Momaday reveals the different aspects of man’s changing relationship with the earth.

In a setting where oral tradition is responsible for upholding a culture, words hold a special significance; they become “beings in themselves, incantatory, with spirits and bodies” (Costo 6; Lincoln 18). Momaday expresses these sentiments through the persona of Tosamah, an intellectual and peyote priest: “In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God” (House Made of Dawn 82). God, through the Word, was able to create the universe (Velie 27-28). Language has the power to create life, to fashion order out of chaos, to remove the mind from human limitations. The presence of precise sacred language also establishes credibility and gives authority to the novel. Momaday’s recitation of the immeasurably old Navajo chantway earns respect from his Native American audience (Scarberry-Garcia 8). The Navajo Night Chant also intimates that the source of Abel’s alienation is his loss of voice (Evers 39). Abel’s inability to express himself is especially tragic in his Native American setting. Only after the prayer where Abel asks, “Restore my voice for me,” can he acquire a sense of belonging and identity (Schubnell 40).

House Made of Dawn is essentially the tale of Abel’s quest for spiritual identity. Although many of Abel’s voluntary actions alienate him from his tribe, a number of sources of alienation are inherited and predestined. Upon returning from the war, the drunken Abel “fell against his grandfather and did not know him” (House Made of Dawn 8). Abel’s inability to recognize his grandfather finalizes his spiritual divorce from the tribe. Once Abel loses his sense of identity, he becomes prone to drinking and violence. However, the sources of Abel’s alienation are in his blood: “He did not know who his father was. His father was a Navajo, they said, or a Sia, or an Isleta, an outsider anyway, which made him and his mother and Vidal somehow strange and foreign” (House Made of Dawn 11). It is interesting to note that Abel’s mixed heritage is reminiscent of Momaday’s own Kiowa-Cherokee ancestry. Abel’s lack of understanding of tribal customs is demonstrated by his murder of the albino (72-73). The albino, also called “the white man,” is not quite a man, but a witch who embodies nothing but evil (qtd. in Velie 57). Francisco, the “longhair” grandfather, stands in stark contrast to his confused and lost grandson. When Francisco senses the albino’s presence in the cornfield, he chooses to bless the corn and continue with his work (House Made of Dawn 60). Francisco’s acceptance of the unknown displays his understanding of the natural place of evil in the world (Konevich par. 5). Momaday foreshadows Abel’s eventual return by placing the novel within the setting of a classic native tale. Momaday uses the traditional Jemez Pueblo words, “Dypaloh” and “Qtsedaba,” at the beginning and end of the story to signify the formal application of oral tradition techniques (Scarberry-Garcia 8). The structure of House Made of Dawn further reflects native influences. The number four is sacred to many tribes because it symbolizes balance and harmony (Allen 211). One will notice that the novel is split into four sections and four main characters are used to narrate the story (211). As Faulkner and Momaday both agree, man is nothing without personal identity (Schubnell 68).

“[…] and this is why I paint and write: I want to astonish God”

N. Scott Momaday (Prampolini 215).

While advocating Native American values, Momaday pursued a subtle yet vital goal of demolishing longstanding stereotypes bestowed upon the red race by the Great White Father. For centuries, Native Americans were portrayed as “primitive, violent, superstitious, backward, and inarticulate” (Velie 59). However, Momaday’s literary talent, placid demeanor and optimistic outlook convinced many to reevaluate that stereotype. Momaday’s writing provided realistic characters that were neither “frozen in the nineteenth century” nor completely severed from their native cultures (Allen 208). Education was a major element of Momaday’s campaign for the successful renovation of the Native American persona. A critic once said: “American Indians do not write novels and poetry as a rule or teach English at top ranking universities either, but we can not be patronizing” (qtd. in Bonetti 135). Momaday’s exceptional mastery of the language must have surprised or even possibly intimidated a great number of non-Native writers. Regardless of the social standards, Momaday argued that education was each individual’s right and that it should not be restricted to the “realm of the white man” (Trimble 5). However, Momaday has since extended the concept of education to encompass non-Indians by establishing a course solely dedicated to the study of American Indian oral tradition at several prominent universities (Evers 36).

Momaday’s literary achievements quickly garnered public recognition for the Native American community and provided an impetus for the renewal of the fragile bonds between generations. As the first Native American writer to ever win a national literary prize, Momaday was elevated to the position of unofficial spokesperson for all of Native America (Bruchac 96; Allen 208). Momaday’s resonant yet lucid voice finally spoke for the millions that had once been silenced. Armed with the power of publicity, Momaday established the Buffalo Trust, a non-profit organization dedicated to preserving the link between young Native Americans and the elders of the tribes (Wiegner 371). The Buffalo Trust continues to thrive today, ensuring the passage of cultural knowledge from generation to generation (Roemer par. 3).

White society’s recognition of Momaday’s talents provided the rallying force necessary to launch the era of Red Power. Although Momaday was never an outspoken politician, he supported the integration of certain Native American ideas into American policies. The most relevant suggestion was the creation of an American land ethic (Schubnell 33). In the tradition of John Muir and Aldo Leopold, Momaday called for the “extension of social ethics” to include the relationship between man and his environment (33). Momaday observed that the “Indian has always lived on the best of terms with the natural world. Western man and western European civilization has always been at odds with nature” (Costo 4-5). Momaday argued that, through an exchange of ideas, both cultures could achieve their final goal of a sustainable Earth (10).

Critics and writers agree that Momaday’s works inspired an era of renewed interest in Native American literature, more commonly known as the Native American Renaissance (“N(avarre) Scott Momaday” par. 1). Kenneth Lincoln, who originally coined the term, defined the phenomenon as a “written renewal of oral traditions translated into Western literary forms” (Lincoln 8). The 1969 Pulitzer Prize forced the dominant culture to acknowledge that twentieth-century American Indians were capable of producing written literature that was intellectually demanding and “serious” (Allen 207). Between 1968 and 1977, there was an unprecedented increase in the printing of work by Native American writers (Ruppert 173). Momaday’s influence on the Native American community is reflected in the titles of arguably the two best anthologies of American Indian writing, Carriers of the Dream Wheel and The Remembered Earth; both draw their names from Momaday’s poetry (Bruchac 110). Many Native American writers, among them Simon Ortiz and Leslie Marmon Silko, have acknowledged their literary debt to Momaday (“N(avarre) Scott Momaday” par. 1). Paula Gunn Allen has even expressed that House Made of Dawn “made things possible for [her] that were never possible before” (Bruchac 110).

N. Scott Momaday, through taps on a typewriter or scratches of a pen on paper, became a leader for the Native American people in every area, whether it be cultural, political, or literary. This man, this writer, this literary chieftain, gave a voice to Native Americans and changed the minds of Americans not with tomahawks, spears, or arrows, but with words.

Works Cited

Allen, Chadwick. “N. Scott Momaday: Becoming the Bear.” The Cambridge Companion to Native American Literature. Ed. Joy Porter and Kenneth M. Roemer. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.

American Nature Writers. “N(avarre) Scott Momaday.” Ed. John Elder. Vol. 2. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1996. Literature Resources from Gale. Gale. Los Angeles Public Library. 7 Sept. 2009 <http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=LitRG&u=lapl>.

Bonetti, Kay. “N. Scott Momaday: Interview.” Conversations with N. Scott Momaday. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1997.

Bruchac, Joseph. “The Magic of Words: An Interview with N. Scott Momaday.” Conversations with N. Scott Momaday. Ed. Matthias Schubnell. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1997.

Costo, Rupert. “Discussion: The Man Made of Words.” Conversations with N. Scott Momaday. Ed. Matthias Schubnell. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1997.

Evers, Lawrence J. “A Conversation with N. Scott Momaday.” Conversations with N. Scott Momaday. Ed. Matthias Schubnell. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1997.

House Made of Dawn. Momaday, N. Scott. New York: HarperPerennial, 1999.

Konevich, John. “Momaday’s House Made of Dawn.” The Explicator. 60.4 (Summer 2002): p 236. Literature Resources from Gale. Gale. Los Angeles Public Library. 7 Sept. 2009 <http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=LitRG&u=lapl>.

Lincoln, Kenneth. Native American Renaissance. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983.

“Native American Cultures: Subsistence Patterns.” Encyclopedia of the American West. 4 vols. Macmillan Reference USA, 1996. Reproduced in History Resource Center. Farmington Hills, MI: Gale. http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/HistRC/

"Native American Movement." Civil Rights in the United States . 2 vols. Macmillan Reference USA, 2000. Reproduced in History Resource Center. Farmington Hills, MI: Gale. http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/HistRC/

“Native Americans of the Plains and Far West.” American Journey Online: Westward Expansion. Primary Source Microfilm, 1999. Reproduced in History Resource Center. Farmington Hills, MI: Gale. http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/HistRC/

“N(avarre) Scott Momaday.” Schubnell, Matthias. Native American Writers of the United States. Ed. Kenneth M. Roemer. Dictionary of Literary Biography Vol. 175. Detroit: Gale Research, 1997. <http://go.galegroup.com/ps/start.do?p=LHRG&u=lapl>.

Porter, Joy. “Historical and Cultural Contexts to Native American Literature.” The Cambridge Companion to Native American Literature. Ed. Joy Porter and Kenneth M. Roemer. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.

Prampolini, Gaetano. “The Ancient Child: A Conversation with N. Scott Momaday.” Conversations with N. Scott Momaday. Ed. Matthias Schubnell. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1997.

Roemer, Kenneth M. “Vision Statement for the Buffalo Trust.” N. Scott Momaday. Department of English, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. 2002. Web. 27 Oct 2009. <http://www.english.illinois.edu/Maps/poets/m_r/momaday/buffalotrust.htm>.

Ruppert, James. “Fiction: 1968 to the Present.” The Cambridge Companion to Native American Literature. Ed. Joy Porter and Kenneth M. Roemer. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.

Scarberry-Garcia, Susan. Landmarks of Healing: A Study of House Made of Dawn. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1990.

Schubnell, Matthias. N. Scott Momaday: The Cultural and Literary Background. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1985.

“Shouting at the Machine: An Interview with N. Scott Momaday.” Conversations with N. Scott Momaday. Ed. Matthias Schubnell. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1997.

Teuton, Sean Kicummah. Red Land, Red Power: Grounding Knowledge in the American Indian Novel. Durham: Duke University Press, 2008.

Trimble, Martha Scott. N. Scott Momaday. Western Writers Series 9. Boise: Boise State College, 1973.

Velie, Alan R. Four American Indian Literary Masters. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1982.

Wiegner, Kathleen. “N. Scott Momaday.” Page to Page: Retrospectives of Writers from the Seattle Review. Ed. Colleen J. McElroy. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2006. 356-377.

Annotated Bibliography

Allen, Chadwick. “N. Scott Momaday: Becoming the Bear.” The Cambridge Companion to Native American Literature. Ed. Joy Porter and Kenneth M. Roemer. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.

An essay covering Momaday’s main arguments.

An essay focusing on Momaday’s views toward nature and the environment

Bonetti, Kay. “N. Scott Momaday: Interview.” Conversations with N. Scott Momaday. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1997.

An interview with useful quotes from critics.

Bruchac, Joseph. “The Magic of Words: An Interview with N. Scott Momaday.” Conversations with N. Scott Momaday. Ed. Matthias Schubnell. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1997.

An interview with a focus on Momaday’s impacts.

“Consumerism.” St. James Encyclopedia of Popular Culture. 5 vols. St. James Press, 2000. Reproduced in History Resource Center. Farmington Hills, MI: Gale. http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/HistRC/

An essay on the major causes and effects of the rise of the consumer mindset.

Costo, Rupert. “Discussion: The Man Made of Words.” Conversations with N. Scott Momaday. Ed. Matthias Schubnell. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1997.

A discussion that provided many of Momaday’s main arguments

“Ethnic Consciousness (1970s).” American Decades CD-ROM. Gale Research, 1998. Reproduced in History Resource Center. Farmington Hills, MI: Gale. http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/HistRC/

A brief summary of cultural trends during the 1970s.

Evers, Lawrence J. “A Conversation with N. Scott Momaday.” Conversations with N. Scott Momaday. Ed. Matthias Schubnell. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1997.

An interview with a focus on Momaday’s literary techniques

House Made of Dawn. Momaday, N. Scott. New York: HarperPerennial, 1999.

Momaday’s main work

Isernhagen, Hartwig. Momaday, Vizenor, Armstrong: Conversations on American Indian Writing. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999.

A collection of interviews with a focus on literature.

Johnson, Troy R. The Occupation of Alcatraz Island: Indian Self-Determination and the Rise of Indian Activism. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1996.

A work on the political and social pressures leading to the rise of Indian activism.

An essay dealing with Momaday’s use of characterization.

Lincoln, Kenneth. Native American Renaissance. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983.

A book chronicling the rebirth of Native American literature.

A historical essay that provided background information on Native American culture.

A brief historical essay on the main events of the Native American Movement

A useful historical essay on the role of the buffalo in tribal culture.

A biography

Source for the Vision Statement of the Buffalo Trust.

A mainly historical essay focusing on American policies regarding Native Americans

Prampolini, Gaetano. “The Ancient Child: A Conversation with N. Scott Momaday.” Conversations with N. Scott Momaday. Ed. Matthias Schubnell. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1997.

A relatively newer interview with a focus on Momaday’s later works.

Ruppert, James. “Fiction: 1968 to the Present.” The Cambridge Companion to Native American Literature. Ed. Joy Porter and Kenneth M. Roemer. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.

An essay covering Native American literary trends.

A historical essay covering the major events of the Native American Movement.

A historical essay on the general political and social condition of Native Americans.

Scarberry-Garcia, Susan. Landmarks of Healing: A Study of House Made of Dawn. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1990.

An analytical book with a focus on the cultural contexts of Abel’s recovery.

Schubnell, Matthias. N. Scott Momaday: The Cultural and Literary Background. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1985.

A comprehensive biography and study on Momaday’s non-native influences.

“Shouting at the Machine: An Interview with N. Scott Momaday.” Conversations with N. Scott Momaday. Ed. Matthias Schubnell. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1997.

An interview; source of the opening quote.

Teuton, Sean Kicummah. Red Land, Red Power: Grounding Knowledge in the American Indian Novel. Durham: Duke University Press, 2008.

An analysis of the Native American themes in House Made of Dawn

Trimble, Martha Scott. N. Scott Momaday. Western Writers Series 9. Boise: Boise State College, 1973.

A short pamphlet encapsulating all of Momaday’s main works and his literary style.

Velie, Alan R. Four American Indian Literary Masters. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1982.

A literary analysis on Momaday’s major works.

Wiegner, Kathleen. “N. Scott Momaday.” Page to Page: Retrospectives of Writers from the Seattle Review. Ed. Colleen J. McElroy. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2006. 356-377.

A relatively recent interview that focuses on Momaday’s latest activities.

Links

AP Team Term Paper Topics

Mr. Klipfel’s Website

Modern American Poetry – N. Scott Momaday

Academy of Achievement Profile (biography, interview, and pictures)

Kiowa Tribe and Language